Historical Migration Routes
The peopling of Australia was marked by some of the longest and most demanding sea and land migrations in recorded history. Among these, three stand out as defining episodes of endurance, suffering, and determination: the First Fleet (1787–1788), the Second Fleet (1790), and the Chinese Gold Miners’ migrations (1850s–1860s).
First Fleet (1787–1788)
The First Fleet was one of the longest organized voyages of human settlement ever undertaken, lasting 252 days and covering roughly 15,000–16,000 nautical miles from England to New South Wales.
Comprising 11 ships, it carried more than a thousand people, including convicts, marines, and officers. Under Captain Arthur Phillip, the expedition was meticulously planned, stopping at Tenerife, Rio de Janeiro, and Cape Town for resupply. Humane treatment, adequate provisions, and disciplined health measures limited deaths to just 3%, a remarkably low figure for 18th-century ocean crossings.
This voyage successfully founded the first European colony in Australia, marking the beginning of permanent British settlement.
Second Fleet (1790)
The Second Fleet followed two years later, equally long but infamous for its brutality. Operated by private contractors driven by profit rather than duty, the fleet of six ships saw 26% mortality—more than a quarter of its human cargo.
Prisoners were chained below deck, starved, and denied basic sanitation. The result was catastrophic: hundreds died en route or shortly after arrival.
Dubbed the “Death Fleet,” this voyage stands as a stark contrast to the First Fleet, exposing the human cost of neglect and exploitation during colonial expansion.
Chinese Gold Miners (1850s–1860s)
Nearly seventy years later, a new wave of migration would earn its place among the most arduous journeys of human settlement.
During the Victorian gold rush, over 17,000 Chinese miners sailed from Guangzhou and Hong Kong to Robe, South Australia, covering roughly 10,500 km by sea. To avoid discriminatory taxes in Victoria, they then endured the “Robe Walk”, a 500 km trek across harsh terrain to the goldfields of Ballarat and Bendigo.
Facing racism, exhaustion, and isolation, many perished along the way, with an estimated 5–10% mortality. Yet, those who survived helped lay the foundations of Australia’s early multicultural society.
Legacy
From the First Fleet’s precision and endurance to the Second Fleet’s tragedy and the Chinese miners’ resilience, these voyages represent both the ambition and the human cost of settlement.
Together, they chart a spectrum—from the world’s longest maritime migrations of colonization to some of the most grueling overland and sea journeys of migration—shaping Australia’s social and cultural beginnings.
